Instructional Design Theory

Instructional Design Theory

• Learning theory describes how people learn.
• Instructional Design theory is based on learning theory, describing how to best design instruction so learning takes place.

Traditional Instructional Design Process

There are hundreds of Instructional Design models, but they are almost all based on the ADDIE model.

• A – Analysis
• Determine the training needs, including an analysis of the desired outcomes, target audience, performance/tasks gaps, and media selection
• D – Design
• Develop a blueprint of how the solution will look, including a storyboard and flowchart of the structure of the finished product
• D – Development
• Create a working model of the learning materials
• I – Implementation
• Deliver the solutions to the learners
• E – Evaluation
• Evaluate whether the goals set out in the training needs analysis are met

This traditional approach is not without its problems, and many criticise the model for being too linear. This makes the design process inflexible and less able to accommodate interactive changes.

Instead, a model that promotes an iterative approach to instructional design, such as rapid prototyping, may be required.

Learning Theories

Courses are designed according to the leading models of adult learning that cognitive psychologists have proven to be effective, including Benjamin Bloom, Robert Gagne, John Keller, and Malcolm Knowles.

Benjamin Bloom

Bloom identifies six levels of learning from the simplest behaviour to the most complex. Instructional Designers define observable and measurable learning objectives (and from that the appropriate treatment) using Bloom’s Taxonomy.

1. Knowledge: The need to recall information.
• E.g. Define, List, Name, State
2. Comprehension: The need to interpret information.
• E.g. Describe, Discuss, Identify
3. Application: The use of knowledge in a novel situation.
• E.g. Apply, Demonstrate, Illustrate
4. Analysis: Breaking down knowledge and showing their inter-relationships.
• E.g. Compare, Explain, Order
5. Synthesis: Bringing together separate elements to solve a problem.
• E.g. Arrange, Organise, Propose
6. Evaluation: Use knowledge to make judgements on the basis of criteria.
• E.g. Determine, Evaluate, Recommend

Robert Gagne

Gagne outlines nine instructional events that should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.

• Prepare
• 1. Gain the learner’s attention
• 2. Inform the learner of objectives
• 3. Link to personal experience and prior learning on the subject
• Present
• 4. Deliver the instruction
• 5. Provide learning guidance
• 6. Allow practice
• Support
• 7. Provide feedback
• 8. Assess performance
• 9. Enhance retention

John Keller

Keller's ARCS Model of Motivational Design is a problem solving approach to designing the motivational aspects of learning environments to stimulate and sustain students’ motivation to learn.

• Attention
• Include sensory stimuli, thought provoking questions, and variability
• Relevance
• Answer the question: “What’s in it for me?”
• Confidence
• Provide time estimates and a measure of progress through a course
• Satisfaction
• Learners should find their new skills immediately useful and beneficial

Malcolm Knowles

Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasises that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions.

1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something
2. Adults need to learn experientially
3. Adults approach learning as problem-solving
4. Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value

Cognitive Neuroscience

These learning theories are still applicable even though education and technology are both evolving, but what’s exciting is the advance in cognitive neuroscience (what we know about the brain and how it works) as this is presenting us with more solid evidence for why we should design one way rather than another.

• Overload
• The brain has limited resources for processing information, and attention is selective
• Working memory consists of 7 +/- 2 items
• Reduce overload by:
• Grouping (“chunking”) items
• Remove every word or picture that is not relevant to your learning goals
• Provide the learning when it is needed, not before
• Be consistent in the level (e.g. the complexity) and manner (e.g. the interface) of your presentation
• Retrieve
• You never lose anything from long-term memory, just the ability retrieve it
• Retrieval is a function of how you encode memories, and the number of ‘links’ you provide
• Engage
• Engage the learner by grabbing their attention, allowing them to determine their progress, providing constructive feedback, and introducing an element of excitement/surprise.
• Challenge
• The learning benefits by being challenging. Performance targets, rewards and competition can increase the degree of challenge, perhaps through the use of games.

Summary

Instructional Design theory plays an important role in guiding the practice of designers, but as technology and education are constantly evolving it’s important that instructional designers keep up to date with these changes.

In his book ‘Guide to e-Learning’, Michael Allen defines three priorities for training success:

1. Ensure learners are highly motivated to learn
2. Provide access to appropriate content
3. Provide meaningful and memorable learning experiences