Instructional Design Theory

Instructional Design Theory

• Learning theory describes how people learn.
• Instructional Design theory is based on learning theory, describing how to best design instruction so learning takes place.

Traditional Instructional Design Process

There are hundreds of Instructional Design models, but they are almost all based on the ADDIE model.

• A – Analysis
• Determine the training needs, including an analysis of the desired outcomes, target audience, performance/tasks gaps, and media selection
• D – Design
• Develop a blueprint of how the solution will look, including a storyboard and flowchart of the structure of the finished product
• D – Development
• Create a working model of the learning materials
• I – Implementation
• Deliver the solutions to the learners
• E – Evaluation
• Evaluate whether the goals set out in the training needs analysis are met

This traditional approach is not without its problems, and many criticise the model for being too linear. This makes the design process inflexible and less able to accommodate interactive changes.

Instead, a model that promotes an iterative approach to instructional design, such as rapid prototyping, may be required.

Learning Theories

Courses are designed according to the leading models of adult learning that cognitive psychologists have proven to be effective, including Benjamin Bloom, Robert Gagne, John Keller, and Malcolm Knowles.

Benjamin Bloom

Bloom identifies six levels of learning from the simplest behaviour to the most complex. Instructional Designers define observable and measurable learning objectives (and from that the appropriate treatment) using Bloom’s Taxonomy.

1. Knowledge: The need to recall information.
• E.g. Define, List, Name, State
2. Comprehension: The need to interpret information.
• E.g. Describe, Discuss, Identify
3. Application: The use of knowledge in a novel situation.
• E.g. Apply, Demonstrate, Illustrate
4. Analysis: Breaking down knowledge and showing their inter-relationships.
• E.g. Compare, Explain, Order
5. Synthesis: Bringing together separate elements to solve a problem.
• E.g. Arrange, Organise, Propose
6. Evaluation: Use knowledge to make judgements on the basis of criteria.
• E.g. Determine, Evaluate, Recommend

Robert Gagne

Gagne outlines nine instructional events that should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.

• Prepare
• 1. Gain the learner’s attention
• 2. Inform the learner of objectives
• 3. Link to personal experience and prior learning on the subject
• Present
• 4. Deliver the instruction
• 5. Provide learning guidance
• 6. Allow practice
• Support
• 7. Provide feedback
• 8. Assess performance
• 9. Enhance retention

John Keller

Keller's ARCS Model of Motivational Design is a problem solving approach to designing the motivational aspects of learning environments to stimulate and sustain students’ motivation to learn.

• Attention
• Include sensory stimuli, thought provoking questions, and variability
• Relevance
• Answer the question: “What’s in it for me?”
• Confidence
• Provide time estimates and a measure of progress through a course
• Satisfaction
• Learners should find their new skills immediately useful and beneficial

Malcolm Knowles

Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasises that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions.

1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something
2. Adults need to learn experientially
3. Adults approach learning as problem-solving
4. Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value

Cognitive Neuroscience

These learning theories are still applicable even though education and technology are both evolving, but what’s exciting is the advance in cognitive neuroscience (what we know about the brain and how it works) as this is presenting us with more solid evidence for why we should design one way rather than another.

• Overload
• The brain has limited resources for processing information, and attention is selective
• Working memory consists of 7 +/- 2 items
• Reduce overload by:
• Grouping (“chunking”) items
• Remove every word or picture that is not relevant to your learning goals
• Provide the learning when it is needed, not before
• Be consistent in the level (e.g. the complexity) and manner (e.g. the interface) of your presentation
• Retrieve
• You never lose anything from long-term memory, just the ability retrieve it
• Retrieval is a function of how you encode memories, and the number of ‘links’ you provide
• Engage
• Engage the learner by grabbing their attention, allowing them to determine their progress, providing constructive feedback, and introducing an element of excitement/surprise.
• Challenge
• The learning benefits by being challenging. Performance targets, rewards and competition can increase the degree of challenge, perhaps through the use of games.

Summary

Instructional Design theory plays an important role in guiding the practice of designers, but as technology and education are constantly evolving it’s important that instructional designers keep up to date with these changes.

In his book ‘Guide to e-Learning’, Michael Allen defines three priorities for training success:

1. Ensure learners are highly motivated to learn
2. Provide access to appropriate content
3. Provide meaningful and memorable learning experiences

Levels of Interactivity

Level 1: Passive

The learner receives information only, and is required to read text and view graphics/illustrations to progress through the course.

• Visual menu
• Use a visually engaging menu to explore the scenarios within a course. Details of each scenario could be presented on rollover of each character.
• Rollovers
• You can display the definitions of specific words and terms on mouse rollover. This instant access to definitions can enhance knowledge retention of important terms.
• Rollovers can also be used to present a lot of information on a single screen e.g. considering advice and testimonies from several colleagues.
• Rollovers can be used to allow learners to explore a system or structure. Each part is explained by showing a description about it.
• Click to Reveal
• Select labelled items (text and/or images) to reveal further information.
• Information can be revealed in a sequential manner to illustrate a story.
• Information can be presented in such a way as to help explain a process or system. The screen can build up progressively to reveal text or graphics that remain on screen, rather than disappearing.

Level 2: Limited

The learner makes simple responses to instructional cues. Activities include multiple choice questions and matching exercises related to text and graphic presentations.

• Text MCQ
• Simple text questions can be integrated in the content to allow learners to assess their understanding of the information presented. Generic or specific feedback can be provided with an explanation of the correct answer.
• Question screens where more than one answer is correct can also be used. Where appropriate, feedback can acknowledge where the learner is partially correct.
• Visual MCQ
• Multiple choice question can be designed using images. To answer the question, the learner clicks and selects a single image. The use of images increases the appealing power of the question and the retention of the concepts in question.
• Similarly, multiple correct answer question using images can be used. The learner selects all the appropriate images to solve the question.
• Video
•  Multiple-choice questions can also be interspersed with video to help keep the learner engaged and actively involved with the concepts.
• Drag and drop
• Create a matching pair question using images. The learner places the answer image on the question image.
• Or, create a multiple matching pairs question using images. This activity aids in associative learning of concepts and their visual representations.
• With categorisation interactions, the learner is presented with a set of pre-defined categories. Items associated with each category are presented one by one. The learner has to categorise each item. A time limit could be added for an additional challenge.
• Alternatively, all the items associated with each category are already presented on screen. The learner has to categorise each item.

Level 3: Complex

The learner makes a variety of selections using varied techniques in response to instructional cues. Techniques include complex simulations, data entry, and/or scenario-based branching logic where the learner’s journey is based on their decisions.

• Simulations
• Simulations allow learners to perform realistic tasks, such as logging on to a website, closing a sale, completing a form, or – as in this case – setting up a military Forward Operating Base.
• Text Entry
• Create a question with predefined blank spaces. For each space, the learner needs to type in the correct answer. Alternatively, the correct answer could be selected from a drop down list.
• Multi Branching Scenarios
• Multi branching scenarios allow learners to apply their comprehension of the content by choosing from several paths and experiencing the consequences. Core concepts can be reinforced with the aid of instructive feedback.
• A universal ‘slider’ provides learners with full user control, allowing them to pause, rewind, fast-forward, and replay entire conversations.